This document describes changes to the Java Language Specification
to support Unnamed Classes and Instance main
Methods, which is a preview feature of Java SE 21. See JEP 445 for an overview of the
feature.
A companion document
describes the changes needed to the Java Virtual Machine Specification
to support Unnamed Classes and Instance main
Methods.
Changes are described with respect to existing sections of the JLS.
New text is indicated like this and deleted text is
indicated like this. Explanation and discussion, as needed,
is set aside in grey boxes.
Changelog:
2023-05-30: Minor editorial changes.
2023-05-24: Misc editorial changes.
2023-05-19: 12.1.4 Change to the definition
of a candidate main
method, reflecting change in the
JEP.
2023-05-15:
- Added reference to companion JVMS document.
- 12.1.4 Improvements to explanation of
candidate
main
methods.
2023-05-02: First draft released
Chapter 6: Names
6.7 Fully Qualified Names and Canonical Names
Every primitive type, named package, named top level class, and top level interface has a fully qualified name:
The fully qualified name of a primitive type is the keyword for that primitive type, namely
byte
,short
,char
,int
,long
,float
,double
, orboolean
.The fully qualified name of a named package that is not a subpackage of a named package is its simple name.
The fully qualified name of a named package that is a subpackage of another named package consists of the fully qualified name of the containing package, followed by "
.
", followed by the simple (member) name of the subpackage.The fully qualified name of a named top level class or top level interface that is declared in an unnamed package is the simple name of the class or interface.
The fully qualified name of a top level class or top level interface that is declared in a named package consists of the fully qualified name of the package, followed by "
.
", followed by the simple name of the class or interface.
Each member class, member interface, and array type may have a fully qualified name:
A member class or member interface M of another class or interface C has a fully qualified name if and only if C has a fully qualified name.
In that case, the fully qualified name of M consists of the fully qualified name of C, followed by "
.
", followed by the simple name of M.An array type has a fully qualified name if and only if its element type has a fully qualified name.
In that case, the fully qualified name of an array type consists of the fully qualified name of the component type of the array type followed by "
[]
".
A local class, local interface, or anonymous
class, or unnamed top level class does not have a fully
qualified name.
Every primitive type, named package, named top level class, and top level interface has a canonical name:
- For every primitive type, named package, top level class, and top level interface, the canonical name is the same as the fully qualified name.
Each member class, member interface, and array type may have a canonical name:
A member class or member interface M declared in another class or interface C has a canonical name if and only if C has a canonical name.
In that case, the canonical name of M consists of the canonical name of C, followed by "
.
", followed by the simple name of M.An array type has a canonical name if and only if its component type has a canonical name.
In that case, the canonical name of the array type consists of the canonical name of the component type of the array type followed by "
[]
".
A local class, local interface, or anonymous
class, or unnamed top level class does not have a
canonical name.
Example 6.7-1. Fully Qualified Names
The fully qualified name of the type
long
is "long
".The fully qualified name of the package
java.lang
is "java.lang
" because it is subpackagelang
of packagejava
.The fully qualified name of the class
Object
, which is defined in the packagejava.lang
, is "java.lang.Object
".The fully qualified name of the interface
Enumeration
, which is defined in the packagejava.util
, is "java.util.Enumeration
".The fully qualified name of the type "array of
double
" is "double[]
".The fully qualified name of the type "array of array of array of array of
String
" is "java.lang.String[][][][]
".
In the code:
package points;
class Point { int x, y; }
class PointVec { Point[] vec; }
the fully qualified name of the type Point
is
"points.Point
"; the fully qualified name of the type
PointVec
is "points.PointVec
"; and the fully
qualified name of the type of the field vec
of class
PointVec
is "points.Point[]
".
Example 6.7-2. Fully Qualified Names v. Canonical Name
The difference between a fully qualified name and a canonical name can be seen in code such as:
package p;
class O1 { class I {} }
class O2 extends O1 {}
Both p.O1.I
and p.O2.I
are fully qualified
names that denote the member class I
, but only
p.O1.I
is its canonical name.
Chapter 7: Packages and Modules
7.3 Compilation Units
CompilationUnit is the goal symbol (2.1) for the syntactic grammar (2.3) of Java programs. It is defined by the following production:
- CompilationUnit:
- OrdinaryCompilationUnit
- UnnamedClassCompilationUnit
- ModularCompilationUnit
- OrdinaryCompilationUnit:
- [PackageDeclaration] {ImportDeclaration} {TopLevelClassOrInterfaceDeclaration}
- UnnamedClassCompilationUnit:
- {ImportDeclaration} {ClassMemberDeclarationNoMethod} MethodDeclaration {ClassMemberDeclaration}
- ClassMemberDeclarationNoMethod:
- FieldDeclaration
- ClassDeclaration
- InterfaceDeclaration
-
;
- ModularCompilationUnit:
- {ImportDeclaration} ModuleDeclaration
An ordinary compilation unit consists of three parts, each of which is optional:
A
package
declaration (7.4), giving the fully qualified name (6.7) of the package to which the compilation unit belongs.A compilation unit that has no
package
declaration is part of an unnamed package (7.4.2).import
declarations (7.5) that allow classes and interface from other packages, andstatic
members of classes and interfaces, to be referred to using their simple names.Top level declarations of classes and interfaces (7.6).
An unnamed class compilation unit consists of:
zero or more
import
declarations that allow classes and interface from other packages, andstatic
members of classes and interfaces, to be referred to using their simple names.The declarations of the members (8.2) of the implicitly declared top level class, at least one of which is a method declaration (8.4).
This means that the following compilation unit is unambiguously an ordinary compilation unit:
import p.*; class Test { ... }
whereas the following is unambiguously an unnamed class compilation unit:
import p.*; static void main(){ ... } class Test { ... }
An unnamed class compilation unit implicitly declares a class that satisfies the following properties:
It is always a top level class (7.6).
It is always an unnamed class (it has no canonical or fully qualified name (6.7)).
It is never
abstract
(8.1.1.1).It is always
final
(8.1.1.2).It is always a member of an unnamed package (7.4.2) and has package access.
Its direct superclass type is always
Object
(8.1.4).It never has any direct superinterface types (8.1.5).
The body of the class contains every ClassMemberDeclaration (these are declarations of fields (8.3), methods (8.4), member classes (8.5), and member interfaces (9.1.1.3)) from the unnamed class compilation unit. It is not possible for an unnamed class compilation unit to declare an instance initializer (8.6), static initializer (8.7), or constructor (8.8).
It has an implicitly declared default constructor (8.8.9).
All members of this class, including any implicitly declared members, are subject to the usual rules for member declarations in a class.
It is a compile-time error if this class does not declare a candidate
main
method (12.1.4).
Note that an unnamed package may have multiple unnamed classes as members.
A modular compilation unit consists of a module
declaration (7.7),
optionally preceded by import
declarations. The
import
declarations allow classes and interfaces from
packages in this module and other modules, as well as
static
members of classes and interfaces, to be referred to
using their simple names within the module
declaration.
Every compilation unit implicitly imports every public
class or interface declared in the predefined package
java.lang
, as if the declaration
import java.lang.*;
appeared at the beginning of each
compilation unit immediately after any package
declaration.
As a result, the names of all those classes and interfaces are available
as simple names in every compilation unit.
The host system determines which compilation units are
observable, except for the compilation units in the predefined
package java
and its subpackages lang
and
io
, which are all always observable.
Each observable compilation unit may be associated with a module, as follows:
The host system may determine that an observable ordinary compilation unit is associated with a module chosen by the host system, except for (i) the ordinary compilation units in the predefined package
java
and its subpackageslang
andio
, which are all associated with thejava.base
module, and (ii) any ordinary compilation unit in an unnamed package, which is associated with a module as specified in 7.4.2.The host system must determine that an observable modular compilation unit is associated with the module declared by the modular compilation unit.
The observability of a compilation unit influences the observability of its package (7.4.3), while the association of an observable compilation unit with a module influences the observability of that module (7.7.6).
When compiling the modular and ordinary compilation units associated
with a module M, the host system must respect the dependences
specified in M's declaration. Specifically, the host system
must limit the ordinary compilation units that would otherwise be
observable, to only those that are visible to M. The ordinary
compilation units that are visible to M are the observable
ordinary compilation units associated with the modules that are read
by M. The modules read by M are given by the result of
resolution, as described in the java.lang.module
package specification, with M as the only root module. The host
system must perform resolution to determine the modules read by
M; it is a compile-time error if resolution fails for any of
the reasons described in the java.lang.module
package
specification.
The readability relation is reflexive, so M reads itself, and thus all of the modular and ordinary compilation units associated with M are visible to M.
The modules read by M drive the packages that are uniquely visible to M (7.4.3), which in turn drives both the top level packages in scope and the meaning of package names for code in the modular and ordinary compilation units associated with M (6.3, 6.5.3, 6.5.5).
The rules above ensure that package and type names used in annotations in a modular compilation unit (in particular, annotations applied to the module declaration) are interpreted as if they appeared in an ordinary compilation unit associated with the module.
Classes and interfaces declared in different ordinary compilation units can refer to each other, circularly. A Java compiler must arrange to compile all such classes and interfaces at the same time.
Chapter 8: Classes
A class declaration defines a new class and describes how it is implemented (8.1).
A top level class (7.6) is a class declared directly in a compilation unit.
A nested class is any class whose declaration occurs within the body of another class or interface declaration. A nested class may be a member class (8.5, 9.5), a local class (14.3), or an anonymous class (15.9.5).
Some kinds of nested class are an inner class (8.1.3), which is a class that can refer to enclosing class instances, local variables, and type variables.
An enum class (8.9) is a class declared with abbreviated syntax that defines a small set of named class instances.
A record class (8.10) is a class declared with abbreviated syntax that defines a simple aggregate of values.
For very small programs and casual development, a top level class can be unnamed, that is, it has no canonical or fully qualified name (6.7). An unnamed class is never declared explicitly, but rather is declared implicitly by an unnamed class compilation unit (7.3). An unnamed top level class can be the initial class of the program (12.1.4) but cannot be referred to by a name from any source code, including its own.
This chapter discusses the common semantics of all classes. Details that are specific to particular kinds of classes are discussed in the sections dedicated to these constructs.
A class may be declared public
(8.1.1)
so it can be referred to from code in any package of its module and
potentially from code in other modules.
A class may be declared abstract
(8.1.1.1),
and must be declared abstract
if it is incompletely
implemented; such a class cannot be instantiated, but can be extended by
subclasses. The degree to which a class can be extended can be
controlled explicitly (8.1.1.2):
it may be declared sealed
to limit its subclasses, or it
may be declared final
to ensure no subclasses. Each class
except Object
is an extension of (that is, a subclass of) a
single existing class (8.1.4)
and may implement interfaces (8.1.5).
A class may be generic (8.1.2), that is, its declaration may introduce type variables whose bindings differ among different instances of the class.
Class declarations may be decorated with annotations (9.7) just like any other kind of declaration.
The body of a class declares members (fields, methods, classes, and
interfaces), instance and static initializers, and constructors (8.1.7).
The scope (6.3)
of a member (8.2)
is the entire body of the declaration of the class to which the member
belongs. Field, method, member class, member interface, and constructor
declarations may include the access modifiers public
,
protected
, or private
(6.6).
The members of a class include both declared and inherited members (8.2).
Newly declared fields can hide fields declared in a superclass or
superinterface. Newly declared member classes and member interfaces can
hide member classes and member interfaces declared in a superclass or
superinterface. Newly declared methods can hide, implement, or override
methods declared in a superclass or superinterface.
Field declarations (8.3)
describe class variables, which are incarnated once, and instance
variables, which are freshly incarnated for each instance of the class.
A field may be declared final
(8.3.1.2),
in which case it can be assigned to only once. Any field declaration may
include an initializer.
Member class declarations (8.5)
describe nested classes that are members of the surrounding class.
Member classes may be static
, in which case they have no
access to the instance variables of the surrounding class; or they may
be inner classes.
Member interface declarations (8.5) describe nested interfaces that are members of the surrounding class.
Method declarations (8.4)
describe code that may be invoked by method invocation expressions (15.12).
A class method is invoked relative to the class; an instance method is
invoked with respect to some particular object that is an instance of a
class. A method whose declaration does not indicate how it is
implemented must be declared abstract
. A method may be
declared final
(8.4.3.3),
in which case it cannot be hidden or overridden. A method may be
implemented by platform-dependent native
code (8.4.3.4).
A synchronized
method (8.4.3.6)
automatically locks an object before executing its body and
automatically unlocks the object on return, as if by use of a
synchronized
statement (14.19),
thus allowing its activities to be synchronized with those of other
threads (17).
Method names may be overloaded (8.4.9).
Instance initializers (8.6) are blocks of executable code that may be used to help initialize an instance when it is created (15.9).
Static initializers (8.7) are blocks of executable code that may be used to help initialize a class.
Constructors (8.8) are similar to methods, but cannot be invoked directly by a method call; they are used to initialize new class instances. Like methods, they may be overloaded (8.8.8).
8.1 Class Declarations
A class declaration specifies a class.
There are three kinds of class declarations: normal class declarations, enum declarations (8.9), and record declarations (8.10).
- ClassDeclaration:
- NormalClassDeclaration
- EnumDeclaration
- RecordDeclaration
- NormalClassDeclaration:
-
{ClassModifier}
class
TypeIdentifier [TypeParameters]
[ClassExtends] [ClassImplements] [ClassPermits] ClassBody
A class is also implicitly declared by an unnamed class compilation unit (7.3), a class instance creation expression (15.9.5) and an enum constant that ends with a class body (8.9.1).
The TypeIdentifier in a class declaration specifies the name of the class.
It is a compile-time error if a class has the same simple name as any of its enclosing classes or interfaces.
The scope and shadowing of a class declaration is specified in 6.3 and 6.4.1.
Chapter 9: Interfaces
An interface declaration defines a new interface that can be
implemented by one or more classes. Programs can use interfaces to
provide a common supertype for otherwise unrelated classes, and to make
it unnecessary for related classes to share a common
abstract
superclass.
Interfaces have no instance variables, and typically declare one or
more abstract
methods; otherwise unrelated classes can
implement an interface by providing implementations for its
abstract
methods. Interfaces may not be directly
instantiated.
A top level interface (7.6) is an interface declared directly in a compilation unit.
A nested interface is any interface whose declaration occurs within the body of another class or interface declaration. A nested interface may be a member interface (8.5, 9.5) or a local interface (14.3).
An annotation interface (9.6) is an interface declared with distinct syntax, intended to be implemented by reflective representations of annotations (9.7).
This chapter discusses the common semantics of all interfaces. Details that are specific to particular kinds of interfaces are discussed in the sections dedicated to these constructs.
An interface may be declared to be a direct extension of one
or more other interfaces, meaning that it inherits all the member
classes and interfaces, instance methods, and static
fields
of the interfaces it extends, except for any members that it may
override or hide.
A class may be declared to directly implement one or more
interfaces (8.1.5),
meaning that any instance of the class implements all the
abstract
methods specified by the interface or interfaces.
A class necessarily implements all the interfaces that its direct
superclasses and direct superinterfaces do. This (multiple) interface
inheritance allows objects to support (multiple) common behaviors
without sharing a superclass.
Unlike a class, an interface cannot be declared final
.
However, an interface may be declared sealed
(9.1.1.4)
to limit its subclasses and subinterfaces.
A variable whose declared type is an interface type may have as its
value a reference to any instance of a class which implements the
specified interface. It is not sufficient that the class happen to
implement all the abstract
methods of the interface; the
class or one of its superclasses must actually be declared to implement
the interface, or else the class is not considered to implement the
interface.
Note that, unlike classes, it is not possible to declare, even implicitly, an unnamed top level interface (7.3).
Chapter 12: Execution
This chapter specifies activities that occur during execution of a program. It is organized around the life cycle of the Java Virtual Machine and of the classes, interfaces, and objects that form a program.
The Java Virtual Machine starts up by loading a specified class or
interface, then invoking the a method
main
in this specified class or interface. Section 12.1 outlines the loading, linking, and
initialization steps involved in executing main
, as an
introduction to the concepts in this chapter. Further sections specify
the details of loading (12.2),
linking (12.3),
and initialization (12.4).
The chapter continues with a specification of the procedures for creation of new class instances (12.5); and finalization of class instances (12.6). It concludes by describing the unloading of classes (12.7) and the procedure followed when a program exits (12.8).
12.1 Java Virtual Machine Startup
The Java Virtual Machine starts execution by invoking the
a method main
of some specified class or
interface. If this main
method has a formal
parameter, it is passed passing it a single argument
which is an array of strings. In the examples in this
specification, this first class is typically called
Test
.
The precise semantics of Java Virtual Machine startup are given in Chapter 5 of The Java Virtual Machine Specification, Java SE 21 Edition. Here we present an overview of the process from the viewpoint of the Java programming language.
The manner in which the initial class or interface is specified to
the Java Virtual Machine is beyond the scope of this specification, but
it is typical, in host environments that use command lines, for the
fully qualified name of the initial class or interface
to be specified as a command line argument and for following command
line arguments to be used as strings to be provided as the argument to
the method main
. If the original compilation unit
was an unnamed class compilation unit (7.3), then
the name of the file that contained the compilation unit is typically
used to specify the name of the initial class or interface.
For example, in a UNIX implementation, the command line:
java Test reboot Bob Dot Enzo
will typically start a Java Virtual Machine by invoking method
main
of classTest
(a class in an unnamed package), passing it an argument array containing the four strings "reboot
", "Bob
", "Dot
", and "Enzo
".
Whereas if the file
HelloWorld.java
contained the following unnamed class compilation unit:void main() { System.out.println("Hello, World!"); }
which has been compiled, then the command line:
java HelloWorld
will typically start a Java Virtual Machine by invoking the
main
method of the implicitly declared unnamed class (7.3) producing the output:Hello, World!
We now outline the steps the Java Virtual Machine may take to execute
the initial class or
interface, as an example of the loading, linking, and
initialization processes that are described further in later
sections.Test
12.1.1 Load the Initial Class
or Interface Test
Test
The initial attempt to execute the a
method main
of the initial class
or interface discovers
that Test
the class it is not
loaded - that is, that the Java Virtual Machine does not currently
contain a binary representation for this class or
interface. The Java Virtual Machine then uses a class loader to
attempt to find such a binary representation. If this process fails,
then an error is thrown. This loading process is described further in 12.2.Test
12.1.2 Link the Initial Class or
Interface Test
: Verify, Prepare,
(Optionally) Resolve
Test
After the class or interface
is loaded, it must be initialized before
a method Test
main
can be invoked. And
, like all classes and interfaces,
it must be linked before it is initialized. Linking
involves verification, preparation, and (optionally) resolution. Linking
is described further in 12.3.Test
Verification checks that the loaded representation of the
class or interface is well-formed,
with a proper symbol table. Verification also checks that the code that
implements the class or interface
Test
obeys the semantic requirements of the Java
programming language and the Java Virtual Machine. If a problem is
detected during verification, then an error is thrown. Verification is
described further in 12.3.1.Test
Preparation involves allocation of static storage and any data structures that are used internally by the implementation of the Java Virtual Machine, such as method tables. Preparation is described further in 12.3.2.
Resolution is the process of checking symbolic references from
the class or interface to
other classes and interfaces, by loading the other classes and
interfaces that are mentioned and checking that the references are
correct.Test
The resolution step is optional at the time of initial linkage. An
implementation may resolve symbolic references from a class or interface
that is being linked very early, even to the point of resolving all
symbolic references from the classes and interfaces that are further
referenced, recursively. (This resolution may result in errors from
these further loading and linking steps.) This implementation choice
represents one extreme and is similar to the kind of "static" linkage
that has been done for many years in simple implementations of the C
language. (In these implementations, a compiled program is typically
represented as an "a.out
" file that contains a fully-linked
version of the program, including completely resolved links to library
routines used by the program. Copies of these library routines are
included in the "a.out
" file.)
An implementation may instead choose to resolve a symbolic reference
only when it is actively used; consistent use of this strategy for all
symbolic references would represent the "laziest" form of resolution. In
this case, if the class or interface
had several symbolic references to another
class, then the references might be resolved one at a time, as they are
used, or perhaps not at all, if these references were never used during
execution of the program.Test
The only requirement on when resolution is performed is that any
errors detected during resolution must be thrown at a point in the
program where some action is taken by the program that might, directly
or indirectly, require linkage to the class or interface involved in the
error. Using the "static" example implementation choice described above,
loading and linkage errors could occur before the program is executed if
they involved a class or interface mentioned in the
initial class or interface
or any of the further, recursively
referenced, classes and interfaces. In a system that implemented the
"laziest" resolution, these errors would be thrown only when an
incorrect symbolic reference is actively used.Test
The resolution process is described further in 12.3.3.
12.1.3 Initialize the Initial Class or
Interface Test: Execute Initializers
In our continuing example, the Java Virtual Machine is still trying
to execute the a method main
of
the initial class or
interface. This is permitted only
if the class has been initialized (12.4.1).Test
Initialization consists of execution of any class variable
initializers and static initializers of the initial
class or interface , in
textual order. But before it
Test
can be initialized, its direct superclass
must be initialized, as well as the direct superclass of its direct
superclass, and so on, recursively. In the simplest case, the
initial class or interface Test
has
Test
Object
as its implicit direct superclass; if class
Object
has not yet been initialized, then it must be
initialized before the initial class or interface
is initialized. Class Test
Object
has no superclass, so the recursion terminates here.
If the initial class or interface
has another class Test
Super
as its
superclass, then Super
must be initialized before
the initial class or
interface. This requires loading,
verifying, and preparing Test
Super
if this has not already been
done and, depending on the implementation, may also involve resolving
the symbolic references from Super
and so on,
recursively.
Initialization may thus cause loading, linking, and initialization errors, including such errors involving other classes and interfaces.
The initialization process is described further in 12.4.
12.1.4 Invoke Test.main
a main
method
Test.main
Finally, after completion of the initialization for the
initial class or interface
(during which other consequential loading,
linking, and initializing may have occurred), Test
the a
main
method of
the initial class or interface
main
is invoked.Test
The method main
must be declared public
,
static
, and void
. It must specify a formal
parameter (8.4.1)
whose declared type is array of String
. Therefore, either
of the following declarations is acceptable:
public static void main(String[] args)
public static void main(String... args)
A method of the initial class or interface is a candidate if
it is named main
and one of the following applies:
It is a
static
method, declared in the initial class or interface, with avoid
result, withpublic
,protected
or package access, and with either no formal parameters or a single formal parameter whose declared type is an array ofString
.Note that such a
static
method may not be inherited from a superclass of the initial class or interface.It is an instance method, declared in or inherited by the initial class or interface, with a
void
result, withpublic
,protected
or package access, and with either no formal parameters or a single formal parameter whose declared type is an array ofString
; and where, moreover, the initial class or interface is not an inner class.
Note that a candidate
main
method may have athrows
clause (8.4.6).The permitted signature of a
main
method expanded significantly in Java SE 21. Prior to that, the only variation possible in the signature ofmain
wasString[]
versusString...
for the type of the single formal parameter. In Java SE 21 and above,main
can have one of twelve possible signatures: sixstatic
and six non-static
. This number increases to 18 ifString[]
is distinguished fromString...
in the type of the single formal parameter.Note that it is not a compile-time error if the initial class or interface counts more than one candidate
main
method among its members.The presence of a
main
method in a class or interface may not be immediately apparent because a non-static
main
method may be inherited. For example, a default method in an interface is an instance method (9.4), so may be a candidate when inherited by a class that implements the interface. Development tools are encouraged to highlight when a class or interface has a membermain
method that could serve as the start of the program.A behavioral change was made in Java SE 21, whereby an inherited
static
main
method is no longer considered a candidate method. Any existing initial class or interface whose onlymain
method is bothstatic
and inherited will need to be refactored to continue to serve as the start of the program.
A main
method of the initial class or interface is
invoked, as if by application of the following rules:
If there is a
static
candidate method with a formal parameter then this method is invoked, passing the argument array (12.1).Otherwise, if there is a
static
candidate method with no formal parameters then this method is invoked.Otherwise, if there is a instance candidate method with a formal parameter, then this method is invoked, passing the argument array, on an instance of the initial class created by using a constructor with no formal parameters and either
public
,protected
, or package access.Otherwise, if there is a instance candidate method with no formal parameters, then this method is invoked on an instance of the initial class created by using a constructor with no formal parameters and either
public
,protected
, or package access.
The behavior of an implementation if there is no candidate method to invoke, or if there is no suitable constructor in the initial class when invoking an instance candidate method, is beyond the scope of this specification.
Chapter 13: Binary Compatibility
13.1 The Form of a Binary
Programs must be compiled either into the class
file
format specified by The Java Virtual Machine Specification, Java SE
20 Edition, or into a representation that can be mapped into that
format by a class loader written in the Java programming language.
A class
file corresponding to a class or interface
declaration must have certain properties. A number of these properties
are specifically chosen to support source code transformations that
preserve binary compatibility. The required properties are:
The class or interface must be named by its binary name, which must meet the following constraints:
The binary name of a named top level class or interface (7.6) is its canonical name (6.7). The binary name of an unnamed top level class (7.3) is any valid identifier (3.8).
In simple implementations of the Java SE Platform, where compilation units are stored in files, the binary name of an unnamed top level class would typically be the name of the file containing the unnamed top level class compilation unit (7.3) minus any extension (such as
.java
or.jav
).The binary name of a member class or interface (8.5, 9.5) consists of the binary name of its immediately enclosing class or interface, followed by
$
, followed by the simple name of the member.The binary name of a local class or interface (14.3) consists of the binary name of its immediately enclosing class or interface, followed by
$
, followed by a non-empty sequence of digits, followed by the simple name of the local class.The binary name of an anonymous class (15.9.5) consists of the binary name of its immediately enclosing class or interface, followed by
$
, followed by a non-empty sequence of digits.The binary name of a type variable declared by a generic class or interface (8.1.2, 9.1.2) is the binary name of its immediately enclosing class or interface, followed by
$
, followed by the simple name of the type variable.The binary name of a type variable declared by a generic method (8.4.4) is the binary name of the class or interface declaring the method, followed by
$
, followed by the descriptor of the method (JVMS §4.3.3), followed by$
, followed by the simple name of the type variable.The binary name of a type variable declared by a generic constructor (8.8.4) is the binary name of the class declaring the constructor, followed by
$
, followed by the descriptor of the constructor (JVMS §4.3.3), followed by$
, followed by the simple name of the type variable.
A reference to another class or interface must be symbolic, using the binary name of the class or interface.
A reference to a field that is a constant variable (4.12.4) must be resolved at compile time to the value V denoted by the constant variable's initializer.
If such a field is
static
, then no reference to the field should be present in the code in a binary file, including the class or interface which declared the field. Such a field must always appear to have been initialized (12.4.2); the default initial value for the field (if different than V) must never be observed.If such a field is non-
static
, then no reference to the field should be present in the code in a binary file, except in the class containing the field. (It will be a class rather than an interface, since an interface has onlystatic
fields.) The class should have code to set the field's value to V during instance creation (12.5).Given a legal expression denoting a field access in a class C, referencing a field named f that is not a constant variable and is declared in a (possibly distinct) class or interface D, we define the qualifying class or interface of the field reference as follows:
If the expression is referenced by a simple name, then if f is a member of the current class or interface, C, then let Q be C. Otherwise, let Q be the innermost lexically enclosing class or interface declaration of which f is a member. In either case, Q is the qualifying class or interface of the reference.
If the reference is of the form TypeName
.
f, where TypeName denotes a class or interface, then the class or interface denoted by TypeName is the qualifying class or interface of the reference.If the expression is of the form ExpressionName
.
f or Primary.
f, then:If the compile-time type of ExpressionName or Primary is an intersection type V1
&
...&
Vn (4.9), then the qualifying class or interface of the reference is the erasure (4.6) of V1.Otherwise, the erasure of the compile-time type of ExpressionName or Primary is the qualifying class or interface of the reference.
If the expression is of the form
super.
f, then the superclass of C is the qualifying class or interface of the reference.If the expression is of the form TypeName
.super.
f, then the superclass of the class denoted by TypeName is the qualifying class or interface of the reference.
The reference to f must be compiled into a symbolic reference to the qualifying class or interface of the reference, plus the simple name of the field, f.
The reference must also include a symbolic reference to the erasure of the declared type of the field, so that the verifier can check that the type is as expected.
Given a method invocation expression or a method reference expression in a class or interface C, referencing a method named m declared (or implicitly declared (9.2)) in a (possibly distinct) class or interface D, we define the qualifying class or interface of the method invocation as follows:
If D is
Object
then the qualifying class or interface of the method invocation isObject
.Otherwise:
If the method is referenced by a simple name, then if m is a member of the current class or interface C, let Q be C; otherwise, let Q be the innermost lexically enclosing class or interface declaration of which m is a member. In either case, Q is the qualifying class or interface of the method invocation.
If the expression is of the form TypeName
.
m or ReferenceType::
m, then the class or interface denoted by TypeName, or the erasure of ReferenceType, is the qualifying class or interface of the method invocation.If the expression is of the form ExpressionName
.
m or Primary.
m or ExpressionName::
m or Primary::
m, then:If the compile-time type of ExpressionName or Primary is an intersection type V1
&
...&
Vn, then the qualifying class or interface of the method invocation is the erasure of V1.Otherwise, the erasure of the compile-time type of ExpressionName or Primary is the qualifying class or interface of the method invocation.
If the expression is of the form
super.
m orsuper::
m, then the superclass of C is the qualifying class or interface of the method invocation.If the expression is of the form TypeName
.super.
m or TypeName.super::
m, then if TypeName denotes a class X, the superclass of X is the qualifying class or interface of the method invocation; if TypeName denotes an interface X, X is the qualifying class or interface of the method invocation.
A reference to a method must be resolved at compile time to a symbolic reference to the qualifying class or interface of the method invocation, plus the erasure of the declared signature (8.4.2) of the method. The signature of a method must include all of the following as determined by 15.12.3:
The simple name of the method
The number of parameters to the method
A symbolic reference to the type of each parameter
A reference to a method must also include either a symbolic reference to the erasure of the return type of the denoted method or an indication that the denoted method is declared
void
and does not return a value.Given a class instance creation expression (15.9) or an explicit constructor invocation statement (8.8.7.1) or a method reference expression of the form ClassType
::
new
(15.13) in a class or interface C, referencing a constructor m declared in a (possibly distinct) class or interface D, we define the qualifying class of the constructor invocation as follows:If the expression is of the form
new
D(...)
or ExpressionName.new
D(...)
or Primary.new
D(...)
or D::
new
, then the qualifying class of the constructor invocation is D.If the expression is of the form
new
D(...){...}
or ExpressionName.new
D(...){...}
or Primary.new
D(...){...}
, then the qualifying class of the constructor invocation is the anonymous class declared by the expression.If the expression is of the form
super(...)
or ExpressionName.super(...)
or Primary.super(...)
, then the qualifying class of the constructor invocation is the direct superclass of C.If the expression is of the form
this(...)
, then the qualifying class of the constructor invocation is C.
A reference to a constructor must be resolved at compile time to a symbolic reference to the qualifying class of the constructor invocation, plus the declared signature of the constructor (8.8.2). The signature of a constructor must include both:
The number of parameters of the constructor
A symbolic reference to the type of each formal parameter
A binary representation for a class or interface must also contain all of the following:
If it is a class and is not
Object
, then a symbolic reference to the direct superclass of this class.A symbolic reference to each direct superinterface, if any.
A specification of each field declared in the class or interface, given as the simple name of the field and a symbolic reference to the erasure of the type of the field.
If it is a class, then the erased signature of each constructor, as described above.
For each method declared in the class or interface (excluding, for an interface, its implicitly declared methods (9.2)), its erased signature and return type, as described above.
The code needed to implement the class or interface:
For an interface, code for the field initializers and the implementation of each method with a block body (9.4.3).
For a class, code for the field initializers, the instance and static initializers, the implementation of each method with a block body (8.4.7), and the implementation of each constructor.
Every class or interface must contain sufficient information to recover its canonical name (6.7).
Every member class or interface must have sufficient information to recover its source-level access modifier (6.6).
Every nested class or interface must have a symbolic reference to its immediately enclosing class or interface (8.1.3).
Every class or interface must contain symbolic references to all of its member classes and interfaces (8.5, 9.5), and to all other nested classes and interfaces declared within its body.
A construct emitted by a Java compiler must be marked as synthetic if it does not correspond to a construct declared explicitly or implicitly in source code
, unless the emitted construct is a class initialization method (JVMS §2.9). There are two exceptions:A class initialization method (JVMS §2.9) does not correspond to any single method declared explicitly or implicitly in source code, but does correspond to a class's static initializers (8.7) and/or
static
field initializers (8.3.2); for this reason, a class initialization method must not be marked as synthetic.The binary representation of an unnamed class must be marked as synthetic.
A construct emitted by a Java compiler must be marked as mandated if it corresponds to a formal parameter declared implicitly in source code (8.8.1, 8.8.9, 8.9.3, 15.9.5.1).
The following formal parameters are declared implicitly in source code:
The first formal parameter of a constructor of a non-
private
inner member class (8.8.1, 8.8.9).The first formal parameter of an anonymous constructor of an anonymous class whose superclass is an inner class (not in a static context) (15.9.5.1).
The formal parameter
name
of thevalueOf
method which is implicitly declared in an enum class (8.9.3).The formal parameters of a compact constructor of a record class (8.10.4).
For reference, the following constructs are declared implicitly in source code, but are not marked as mandated because only formal parameters and modules can be so marked in a
class
file (JVMS §4.7.24, JVMS §4.7.25):
Default constructors of normal and enum classes (8.8.9, 8.9.2)
Canonical constructors of record classes (8.10.4)
Anonymous constructors (15.9.5.1)
The
values
andvalueOf
methods of enum classes (8.9.3)Certain
public
fields of enum classes (8.9.3)Certain
private
fields andpublic
methods of record classes (8.10.3)Certain
public
methods of interfaces (9.2)Container annotations (9.7.5)
Unnamed classes, implicitly declared in an unnamed class compilation units (7.3).
A class
file corresponding to a module declaration must
have the properties of a class
file for a class whose
binary name is module-info
and which has no superclass, no
superinterfaces, no fields, and no methods. In addition, the binary
representation of the module must contain all of the following:
A specification of the name of the module, given as a symbolic reference to the name indicated after
module
. Also, the specification must include whether the module is normal or open (7.7).A specification of each dependence denoted by a
requires
directive, given as a symbolic reference to the name of the module indicated by the directive (7.7.1). Also, the specification must include whether the dependence istransitive
and whether the dependence isstatic
.A specification of each package denoted by an
exports
oropens
directive, given as a symbolic reference to the name of the package indicated by the directive (7.7.2). Also, if the directive was qualified, the specification must give symbolic references to the names of the modules indicated by the directive'sto
clause.A specification of each service denoted by a
uses
directive, given as a symbolic reference to the name of the class or interface indicated by the directive (7.7.3).A specification of the service providers denoted by a
provides
directive, given as symbolic references to the names of the classes and interfaces indicated by the directive'swith
clause (7.7.4). Also, the specification must give a symbolic reference to the name of the class or interface indicated as the service by the directive.
The following sections discuss changes that may be made to class and
interface declarations without breaking compatibility with pre-existing
binaries. Under the translation requirements given above, the Java
Virtual Machine and its class
file format support these
changes. Any other valid binary format, such as a compressed or
encrypted representation that is mapped back into class
files by a class loader under the above requirements, will necessarily
support these changes as well.